The Existence Of Parallel Universes

It was a bright sunny day in Springfield Massachusetts, 14-year-old Monica was reading an interesting book about our universe and galaxies. Her father, Richard, an Astrophysicist, was relaxing on his chair after preparing for his pre-requisites for the project.  

“Are we living in a vast multiverse, dad?” Monica asked her dad Richard who replied with a calm and composed look, “Well, as far as our current observations go, we live in a vast universe which is within our observable spectrum. But who knows Moni, if there are ground-breaking innovative inventions say something like large, powerful telescopes, we could find a cluster of universes nearby”? 

“Oh, does that mean that we could be living alongside numerous universes with several different planets and stars?” Monica shrieked with excitement. 

“Not really, Moni, you see, the existence of a parallel universe is not proven and is the product of science fiction, but who knows, the future could hold a lot more that are yet to unfold.” 

How Can Parallel Universes Be Discovered?

Monica asked, “Dad is there a way to discover parallel universes? If so, how is it done?” 

Richard replied, “Well, in one of my assignments as a sophomore in college, I was assigned to study about the outcome of a probability that could occur. Do you know what I did? I started off by using the alternate and null hypothesis methods. However, that didn’t work well as one of the professors said that you have been looking at it from the wrong perspective. The professor said that in quantum physics, the cause of unpredictable outcomes is vast. For instance, if you take a ball and shoot it through a double slit, you can only know the probabilities of where it will land but cannot predict where exactly it will land. This helped me to come up with various probabilities of the outcome that could occur.” 

“Similarly, the many-worlds interpretation that we are now dealing with in the parallel universe concept is closely related to quantum mechanics. All the outcomes could possibly occur, but only one can happen in each universe. It takes an infinite number of parallel universes to account for all possibilities.”

“With the observable universe that began nearly 13.8 billion years ago right after the big bang. Did you know that the big bang itself was not the beginning? Yes, that’s right, for an event like a big bang to occur, there would have been something known as cosmological inflation. Once the inflation ends, the big bang occurs.”

Something Beyond Perhaps?

“Hmm, I see, dad. Can you please elaborate on the concept and the probability of existence? It’s not clear,” said Monica.

“Sure honey, you see, when I explained to you about inflation, I meant that inflation doesn’t end everywhere at once; however, the place where inflation doesn’t end, it continues to inflate, thereby giving rise to more space and more potential big bangs. Once inflation begins, it is nearly impossible to stop inflation from occurring somewhere else. It’s more or less like a chain event. So, as time passes by, more big bangs would continue to occur, giving rise to a large number of independent universes, such as a multiverse.”

“Thanks, dad. Now you have made it clear; I would also like to know whether this is a proven fact or just a theory,” Monica asks.

“Well, these are just ideas drawn by scientists Moni; the problem with these ideas is that there is no way to test the prediction of these parallel universes without any sign of evidence. Scientists can only theorize and postulate various probabilities that may showcase the existence of parallel universes, but they cannot draw a concrete conclusion of the same. If we are stuck in our universe, how could we hope to cross another one?” 

“Also, particles don’t simply appear, transform, or disappear. However, they can interact with other matter, energy, or quanta. Here, there is a limitation; these particles can only interact under the laws governed by physics. In all the experiments and observations that scientists have made, there is yet to be a discovery of an interaction that demands the existence of a universe beyond ours.” 

What Would a Parallel Universe Be Like?

“I now get the bigger picture, dad, but anyways, let’s say that we discover the existence of another universe; how would that universe be. If so, what would its existence mean to us?” Monica asked excitedly.

Richard looked out of the window for a few seconds and thought for a while; he then turned to Monica and explained. “Well, Monica, this is a really good question, but it looks like you have put me in a tight spot. Anyways, let me try to answer to the best of my ability. Let’s assume that if we were to discover another universe, it would completely change the perspective of our laws, research, the field of cosmology, and even some long-standing physics laws could take the backseat.” 

“Yes, that’s right, the laws that govern another universe could be radically different from ours. Maybe, instead of gravity, there could be another force that binds planets. Who knows, even the stars in our neighboring universe could be formed in different ways and comprise elements that are never discovered or heard of. Instead of solar systems, there could be a cluster of stars that form a different network around the galaxy. Time and space would behave in a radically different manner, perhaps even go in reverse. My imagination simply cannot run beyond this, Moni. I hope this answers your question. 

“Thanks a lot. Dad, it looks like I can write a cool Sci-Fi story with what you have said. I am looking forward to publishing an article on Parallel universe using these inputs.” Said Monica.

Richard felt satisfied with his daughter’s enthusiasm and said, “That’s my girl, go ahead Moni, I am sure your teacher would be really impressed with your work. Also, I urge you to do your own research and write the article in a unique way that suits your style.” 

Movement Of Plate Tectonics, The Formation of Continents

Have you ever wondered how the continents in our world took shape? Did you know that over 250 million years ago, the world was comprised of only one large landmass surrounded by a massive ocean? The first-ever landmasses took hundreds of millions of years to form. This was after the Earth cooled and the atmosphere was formed, over 3 billion years ago. 

Our Earth has been through hell, taken a severe beating from various external forces, and sacrificed a lot to make life possible for millions of species that thrive today! The movement of tectonic plates is the reason why we see the continents that are present today. Tectonic plates comprise the Earth’s uppermost mantle and comprise oceanic and continental crusts. Earthquakes typically occur around mid-ocean ridges and large faults that mark the edge of plates. 

Tectonic plates constantly move even today; that’s the reason why tsunamis and earthquakes occur. The continents which we see today are the result of a 250-million-year-old journey of plate movement. Come, let’s dive into understanding how the movement of plate tectonics have shaped the continents we see today.

Super Continent Pangea 

Around 300 to 275 million years ago, a supercontinent called Pangea existed, which was known to be the first-ever landmass to exist. This amazing supercontinent was surrounded by a massive ocean called Panthalassa. Pangea existed during early the Permian period when the first multi-cellular organisms thrived on Earth. Plants, insects, vertebrate animals and early marine life lived during the Permian period. 

After studying the geological composition of Earth in 1912, Alfred Wegner, a German meteorologist, proposed the existence of Pangea as a part of his theory of continental drift. Later, geologists further delved into this theory, studied the composition of the Earth’s crust and the movement of plates to confirm the existence of this supercontinent. Pangea in Greek means “all the Earth.” 

Continental Plates  

The continents we see today are the product of over 250 million years of tectonic plate activity. Pangea began to break apart around 200 years ago during the Early Jurassic Epoch. This supercontinent broke and drifted apart in different directions. Each continent is placed on a specific plate. Some important plates include South American Plate, Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian plate, North American Plate, Caribbean plate, and Antarctica plate.  

Formation of Continents

When Pangea first broke apart, each continental plate broke apart, and the respective plates began moving in different directions according to the movement of the tectonic plates. Another important point to note is that in some cases, the movement of the tectonic plates were accelerated by strong oceanic currents. 

The North American plate was the first to break apart and moved in the north-western direction. Another large chunk of landmass at the bottom of Pangea broke off and moved southwards to form Antarctica. The Indo-Australian Plate, stuck to the Antarctic plate, broke apart and moved eastwards with a slight tilt towards the north. The Eurasian plate began moving in the North-East direction. The South American plate began moving towards the west, and the African Plate began moving towards northwards, eventually touching the Eurasian Plate. All these continents moved to their current location over 200 million years. 

Formation of the Himalayas

Now that we have seen how the movement of plate tectonics has shaped the continents we see today. You might be wondering, isn’t there something that I have missed out on? Yes, how could one forget about the Indian sub-continent? Well, the best has been saved for the last. 

Around 200 million years ago, the tectonic plate that holds the Indian Subcontinent was located in the southernmost region of Pangea right above Antarctica. This plate was sandwiched between the African plate and the Indo-Australian plate. Initially, the African and the Indo-Australian plates broke apart. After another 10 million years, the Indian Subcontinent broke away from the Antarctic Subcontinent and began moving northwards towards Asia. 

The plate that held the Indian Subcontinent moved relatively fast. Most of the crust below the Indian Subcontinent came off due to the movement of the oceanic plate, thereby making the landmass much lighter. With excess weight shed off, the Indian Subcontinent travelled relatively faster over millions of years from the region close to Antarctica to Asia. During the initial stage of the journey, a small landmass in the western side of the Indian Subcontinent broke apart and moved along the African plate. This landmass is what is now known as Madagascar. 

The Indian Subcontinent made contact with the Eurasian plate around 50 million years ago. The impact of this collision is what caused the formation of the Himalayas. When the Subcontinent collided, the oceanic plate that was attached to the North-East portion of the landmass made contact with the Eurasian plate. This collision lifted the plates to form the Himalayas. Even today, the Indian Subcontinent continues to move Northward by a small margin, causing earthquakes in Nepal and parts of Tibet. 

Conclusion

Tectonic plates are constantly moving, and in a few million years into the future, the continents we see today will eventually drift further away. Who knows?? Maybe 200 million years into the future, all continents may even converge together and form a new landmass. 

Faster than the Speed of Light with Warp Speed

What! You may be thinking, how could any object with mass travel at the speed of light? It is illegal according to the laws of physics and Einstein’s relativity theory. Well, the truth is, as per the current standards, we are nowhere near creating devices that could travel close to the speed of light, let alone exceed it. However, science fiction concepts have helped us to widen the horizons of our thinking and bend a few stubborn physics laws by bending the fabric of space and propel forward.

Warp drives are so fast that they could travel several thousand times the speed of light. With the galaxy’s diameter being 100,000 light-years, it would take you 100,000 years to travel through the entire galaxyif you traveled at the speed of light. At the speed of light, it would take you 17 hours to reach the edge of interstellar space. With warp drives, you can bring down that travel time to under 10 minutes.

Understanding Light Speed Travel

According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, the speed of light in a vacuum has a constant velocity of 186,282 m/s. If you travel at this speed, you can circle the Earth seven and a half times in just one second. However, if you travel fast enough, you can leap forwards in time to the point that time will tick slowly for you. Let’s assume that you leave the Earth at the speed of light and return back in ten years. You will find that you would have aged ten years whereas your loved ones would have passed away; this is because you would have landed 100 years later in Earth time.   

Let’s say that you observe the closest galaxy, Andromeda from Earth; you would see it how it was 2.5 million years ago. This is because light from that galaxy would take nearly 2.5 million years to reach us. 

What are Warp Drives?

Warp Drives are spaceships that travel through space by bending the fabric of space to create a bridge across and unbend it back as they move forward. With conventional space crafts, you need a lot of fuel to exit the atmosphere and reach space. Let’s assume that you build the fastest ever spacecraft; it would take a large amount of fuel to reach space and way more to reach the end of the solar system. Assuming that you find a way to recycle fuel and reuse it to propel the spacecraft, it would take you nearly 20,000 years to reach Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth, which is four light-years away. 

If we are looking to travel to other stars within our lifetimes, traveling faster than the speed of light is the only choice. In 1994, Miguel Alcubierre proposed a mathematical theory that could break through the speed-of-light barrier. He used two points in space-time to demonstrate the expansion and contraction of space fabric, known as the space-time warp. It is the concept of shifting space around an object to arrive faster than light. With this theory, we could use the space-time warp to travel faster than the speed of light. 

Bending Einstein’s Theory of Relativity through the Warp Bubble 

According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, an object of mass cannot travel at the speed of light in a vacuum. It states that if an object reaches any speed close to the speed of light, then it would disintegrate. However, with the concept of warp speed and space-time warp, when the fabric of space is expanded and contracted, it creates a void known as the warp bubble.

Instead of going faster than light, the spaceship will remain stationary at a time where the space in front of it is moving faster than it. The ship would ride a supersonic wave without exceeding the speed of light. This is because the ship would remain in the warp bubble, which is a stationary point with the compression and expansion of space-time fabric, making the bubble move faster than light. 

Limitations of Warp Drive

  • Scientists have postulated that this warp drive would require negative energy or exotic matter. This makes it impossible to achieve under the current laws of thermodynamics and energy.  
  • The energy released by a warp drive would be strong enough to rip apart nearby planets or even trigger the formation of a black hole.

Dr Eric Lentz, a researcher at Germany’s university, found gaps in previous warp drive studies. He said that there were yet to be explored configurations of space-time curvature organized into solitons. These solitons can resolve the limitations of warp drives by remaining physically viable. Lentz believes that there is a way to permit super-fast travel through a series of solitons that could provide the basis for a powerful propulsion system. In theory, these solitons could maintain their shape and move at a constant velocity by harnessing positive energy that can enable travel at any speed. 

Conclusion 

There were several other hypotheses and theories proposed to explain the problem of faster than light travel in the past. However, none of them can be implemented in the near future due to our current technological limitations and understanding of different propulsions and thermodynamic laws. Who knows, maybe the discovery of wormholes or creating them could make faster than light travel a walk in the park. 

The Big-Bang, The Birth Of Our Universe

How did the universe begin? This question has been a matter of debate between scientists and religious leaders from time immemorial. The creationists would go on to argue that an almighty supernatural force called “God” was the reason why this universe exists. Well, that is absolute humbug, as any rational person with an iota of logic would look for a scientific explanation with proof and observation of how the universe formed. 

Telescopes, rockets, and modern science have now improved to a great extent, enabling scientists to decipher the mysteries of the universe and gain a better understanding of them. This is bad news for religious leaders as they would find it harder to convince believers due to concrete evidence that contradicts their teachings. Besides, with modern science advancing at a rapid pace, why follow a 2000 year old religious book that is currently obselete.

Scientists have been racking their brains on how the universe began for centuries. Until the 20th century, they thought that the universe was infinite and ageless. However, with the advent of Einstein’s theory of relativity and the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope, we are able to understand the nature of gravity and that galaxies are moving apart from one another. 

The Big-Bang Theory

In 1964, scientists discovered cosmic background radiation, which is like a relic of the early universe. This discovery and other observational evidence made the big bang theory the most acceptable theory in science. The Hubble space telescope gave a clear view of the structure of the cosmos, with recent theories suggesting that the universe is continuously expanding. 

13.8 billion years ago, the big bang occurred. During the big bang, the physics laws we know would make no sense, and time would behave haphazardly. To further understand this, there has to be a theory that unifies Einstein’s theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, which countless scientists are working on. Scientists to this day have no proof of what triggered the big bang or whether it occurred naturally. They also don’t know whether the big bang was a result of the death of another universe after the big crunch, which resulted in the birth of a new universe. 

The Explosion

The big bang theory states that an extremely dense point in space exploded in an unmeasurable force that resulted in space stretching everywhere all at once. The universe did not expand into anything, but space was expanding into itself. This is because the universe cannot expand into anything as it lacks borders. There is no such thing as outside the universe, as the universe is all there is.

During the expansion of space, the early universe comprised a hot dense environment that was uninhabitable. Here, energy manifested itself in tiny particles that existed for a very small point in time. Quark is an elementary particle that forms the fundamental constituent of matter. Gluons are also elementary particles that act as a strong exchange particle for the strong force between quarks. A pair of Quarks was created from Gluons, which destroyed one another or even gave off more gluons. These Gluons found other short-lived Quarks to interact with, thereby forming new quark pairs and gluons. Here, matter and energy were not equivalent as the temperatures were so hot that both were the same stuff. 

Natural Laws Came into Play

Matter won over anti-matter in a battle. This is why the universe is now filled with matter. Instead of one strong force that monopolized the entire universe, several refined versions of it began acting under separate rules. The prime forces being strong nuclear force, electromagnetic force, weak nuclear force, and gravity. 

With the universe stretching to a billion kilometres in diameter, the temperature decreased to a great extent. Now, the cycle of quarks that were born and being converted back to energy broke apart. Quarks began forming particles like protons, electrons, and hadrons, with several combinations of quarks forming into all types of hadrons. However, only a few remained stable for any length of time. Due to the universe cooling down considerably, neutrons decayed into protons to form the first atom, Hydrogen. 

Formation of Stars and Galaxies

The universe was now around ten billion degrees Celsius, full of countless particles and energy. Atoms formed out of hadrons and electrons, giving rise to an electrically neutral environment. This period was known as the dark age due to the presence of no stars. Hydrogen gas did not allow visible light to move around, causing it to clump together. After millions of years, gravity began pulling it under great pressure, with stars and galaxies beginning to form. Due to the radiation, stable hydrogen gas dissolved into plasma that permeates the universe today, allowing light to pass. This whole process resulted in the universe that we see and experience today. 

Neutron Stars- The Most Powerful Stars In Our Universe

What would happen if a star with over 10 to 25 times the mass of our Sun goes supernova? There are two probabilities due to the resulting supernova explosion; one would lead to forming a black hole, and the other leading to the formation of Neutron stars. With the most powerful gravitational field and magnetic force, Neutron stars are spinning balls of collapsed stars that illuminate the night sky. Astronomers have discovered nearly 2000 Neutron stars in the milky way and theorize that there could be over 1 million in our neighbouring galaxies. 

How is a Neutron Star Formed?

In our universe, new stars are formed from the remnants of collapsed stars. The same is true in the case of a Neutron star. Before understanding how Neutron stars were formed, we need to know a little about stars and the cause of a gravitational collapse. Stars comprise millions and billions of hot plasma that is being pushed into the core due to gravity that nuclei fuse. Hydrogen fuses into Helium, thereby releasing energy that pushes against gravity and tries to escape. Stars are quite stable as long as this balance exists. However, over a few billion years, this Helium will get depleted and result in the star growing into a red giant. Medium-sized stars like our Sun will burn Helium into Carbon and Oxygen during the end of their life, swelling into a red giant. These medium-sized stars will turn into white dwarfs.

Gravitational Collapse Resulting in a Supernova

However, for stars that are 10 to 25 times the mass of our Sun, the internal reaction would be far different once the Helium gets exhausted. The balance of pressure and radiation collapses, and gravity will squeeze the star tighter, and the core would burn hotter and faster, resulting in the star swelling hundreds of times. At this stage, heavier elements will begin to fuse; carbon burns to neon in a few centuries. Neon burns to Oxygen in a few months, Oxygen burns to Silicon in months, and Silicon burns to Iron. This Iron ball is nuclear ash with no energy to give and therefore cannot be fused. Without the outward pressure from fusion, the core gets crushed due to the enormous weight around it. 

Due to the collapsing weight of the star, the electrons and protons fuse into neutrons and further gets squeezed together. This is known as a gradual gravitational collapse. Here, an iron ball the size of the Earth gets crushed into a small ball the size of a city. This will result in the whole star imploding with gravity, pulling the outer layers of the star at 25% the speed of light. This implosion bounces off the iron core, producing a massive shockwave with the remnants of the star spewed into space. This is known as a supernova explosion, which is so bright that it could outshine galaxies. After the explosion, what remains is a Neutron star with the mass of over a million Earths but compressed to an object which is nearly 25 km wide. 

The Nature of a Neutron Star

A Neutron Star’s gravity is the second strongest in the universe, first to black holes. If a Neutron star gets denser, it could even become a black hole. Even light gets bent around it, so you can only see the front and parts of the back. They are massively hot as they burn at a million-degree Celsius. Just like planets, Neutron stars also comprise an atmosphere, crust, and core. The crust is very hard as the outermost layers comprise iron leftover from the supernova explosion. On the crust, there are enormous nuclei with millions of protons and neutrons shaped like spaghetti. Physicists call this nuclear pasta which is known to be one of the densest and strongest materials in the universe. Nobody knows what the core of a neutron star might comprise due to its dense nature. Physicists theorize that protons and neutrons might dissolve into an ocean of quarks known as the Quark-Gluon plasma. 

Celestial Ballerinas 

Have you ever seen a ballerina spinning by pulling her arms in? When Neutron stars collapse, they begin spinning very fast, several times per second. PSR J1748-2446ad is one of the fastest spinning neutron stars in our universe, spinning at 716 times a second, which is nearly 25% the speed of light. 

The spin of Neutron stars creates radio pulses that can be detected. These are known as radio pulsars, which are the best-known type of neutron stars. These fast-spinning celestial ballerinas are known as magnetars until they calm down. Magnetars are 1000 times stronger than regular neutron stars, with a magnetic field that is 100 million times stronger than the most powerful man-made magnets. 

The Collision of Two Neutron Stars Forms a Black Hole

The best types of Neutron stars are friends with other neutron stars. While radiating energy like gravitational waves and ripples in space-time, two Neutron stars would collide as their orbits decay. Their collision would result in both stars getting destroyed in a killonova explosion, forming a black hole. The remnants of the explosion and debris of a killonova explosion will mix back into the galaxy. Some of them end up in a cloud that gravity pulls together, leading to the formation of stars and planets. This process would repeat as a cycle.  

Even our solar system is the product of the remains of collapsed Neutron stars. In fact, all the elements in our technological world are built out of the elements Neutron stars made billions of years ago.

Einstein Rosen Bridge- Wormhole Theory

Monica was an inquisitive fifteen-year-old girl who was always in the pursuit of learning more and experimenting with various concepts. She was a very bold teen who never backed down to a challenge and always questioned age-old beliefs and primitive religious ideologies. On a fine Saturday afternoon, Monica finished her assignment that encompassed the core concepts of Einstein’s theory of relativity. She was fascinated by the theory of interstellar travel through Einstein’s Rosen Bridge, popularly known as wormholes. She wanted to know more about this concept, so she turned to her father for an explanation. 

Monica’s father, Richard, was a theoretical astrophysics and cosmologist who often kindled Monica’s interest in Physics and Astronomy. He always made it a point to address his daughter’s queries patiently despite his busy schedule. 

What are Wormholes?

Monica asked, “Hey dad, I have been looking into the concept of Einstein’s Rosen Bridge but couldn’t make heads or tails of it! Can you please explain?” 

Richard replied with a sparkle of excitement in his eyes, “Wow, Monica, I am so glad that you are interested to learn more about this wonderful theory. It would be a pleasure for me to explain this to you.”

He continued, “Monica, to understand the theory about wormholes, you need first to know Einstein’s theory of general relativity and its relevance to the Rosen Bridge. Since general relativity states that the region of space and time can be bent and is not static, Einstein and physicist Nathan Rosan further elaborated on the idea. They proposed the existence of space-time through bridges that connect two different points in space-time. This bridge was coined as the Einstein Rosen bridge.” 

“I understood the concept of the bridge, dad. Can you elaborate on the use of this bridge?” Asked Monica.

“Sure honey, since these bridges connect two different points in space-time, it could reduce the travel time drastically. If you are looking to travel to a place that is several lightyears away, wormholes can make your journey much faster.”

Monica asked, “But dad, don’t the laws of physics state that no object of mass can travel at or faster than the speed of light?”

“Yes, that’s right, dear, but when it comes to the concept of wormholes, it establishes a portal that directly ships you to another point in space-time in an instant. It is kind of like taking a shortcut to your favourite fast-food place.” 

Are there White Holes?

“Wow, dad, that was quite insightful. Can you please tell me more about the principle of how wormholes function?” asked Monica.

The Einstein Rosen bridge theory was further expanded where massive blackholes play a vital role in linking two areas of space. Richard explained, “as we have seen from Einstein’s theory of relativity about black holes, matter and light that gets sucked into the black hole is spat out through a white hole in another region of space or even another dimension, perhaps even a multiverse.”

Monica said, “sounds so cool, dad. Does that mean that white holes exist?”

“No honey, the existence of white holes and wormholes are only on paper; they haven’t been proven. No telescope has spotted a region in space where matter and light are being emitted. Also, there is no proof that black holes are portals to other regions in space or another universe; it is all just speculation.” 

The Scope of Wormholes

“Oh, I see,” said Monica with a disappointed expression on her face. “So, let’s assume that wormholes are real; if so, what are they useful for?”

Richard replied, “sweetheart, if wormholes are real, they can be used for a wide variety of interstellar travel and travel between galaxies in a zap.” They would be like shortcuts to destinations that would normally take hundreds of years to reach, that is assuming that we could travel at the speed of light. Even though an object would travel slower than light inside the wormhole, it would reach a destination before light itself, as the region inside a wormhole is like taking a very easy shortcut to a location. 

“Oh my god, that is so amazing, dad! Hey, tell me what expert scientists have to say about wormholes? Monica said with her eyes filled with excitement.” 

“Did you know that several scientists have theorized some concepts that could suggest that wormholes could exist? Yeah, Stephen Hawking says that wormholes could be all around us, but they would appear microscopically small. Within every piece of matter, including time itself, there could be very small holes and wrinkles that are smaller than an atom. Due to them being so tiny, there is no possible way to travel between or manipulate them.”

Magnetic Wormholes

Monica said, “This is really fascinating, dad. Are there other types of wormholes?”

Richard said, “the Einstein Rosen bridge is the theory of a gravitational wormhole, whereas another type of wormhole is known as a magnetic wormhole. A magnetic field can be transferred from one place to another through a magnetically non-detectable path in a magnetic wormhole. Hey, did you know that physicists in Spain were able to create a magnetic wormhole in 2015? They created a tunnel that enabled a magnetic field to disappear at one point in space and reappear at another. Using metasurfaces and metamaterials, they constructed a tunnel that was able to achieve this near unimaginable feat.” 

“Thanks for this amazing insight dad, you have made the theory of wormholes play like a documentary movie in front of my eyes. I would love to submit an article explaining this concept for my science project.” 

“That’s my girl, remember Monica, the field of science is always ever-evolving, who knows, in the future, we could probably stumble into some mind-blowing evidence that could prove things which are far beyond our current knowledge. Always explore, don’t limit the potential of your brain to mere bookish knowledge, and expand your thinking beyond the horizons of humankind.” 

Tiny Vibrating Strings in the Universe- String Theory Simplified

Gravity has been one of the most pivotal forces that bind planets, stars, and galaxies. Scientists have been keen on understanding the nature of elements through mathematical calculations and analytical methods. Theoretical physicists were unable to make head or tail for several unanswered questions that have baffled them for decades. That’s when Werner Karl Heisenberg, a German theoretical physicist, did extensive research and arrived at string theory. Understanding this theory and deciphering it was like finding a needle in a haystack. The string theory was a single mathematical picture that described all forces and matter. It aimed at addressing various theoretical conundrums with the principle of how gravity works as its fundamental point. 

General relativity proposed by Einstein states that gravity was a reaction of large objects, such as planets, towards the curved regions of space. However, theoretical physicists were not convinced as they thought that gravity had to behave like magnetism. This is because even small particles such as fridge magnets stick as they swap photons with the particles on the fridge’s surface. Physicists understood that gravity lacked this description from the perspective of small particles among the four forces in nature. They could predict the appearance of a gravity particle but were unable to calculate what happens when two gravitons smashed together, as mathematical calculations showed infinite energy was packed into a small space. This meant that the math lacked something; this was when string theory found its place.

The string theory draws a new perspective of the standard description of the universe by replacing all matter and force particles with just a single element. These tiny vibrating strings twist and turn in a complex manner. Although this theory broadens the perspective of our universe, it fails to unify certain aspects in physics as scientists continue to debate on its relevance and scope for improvement today. 

What is String Theory?

Strings can collide and rebound cleanly without implying physically impossible infinities. Quantum mechanics and probability principles were enough to explain the composition of our universe. However, many problems bothered scientists and prevented them from having a good night’s sleep. Quantum gravity was one of the prominent problems in modern physics; it had to reconcile general relativity with principles of quantum mechanics. There were large gaps in developing a consistent theory of quantum gravity due to several problems in black holes, atomic nuclei, and the early development of the universe during that time. One possible solution, which theorists borrowed from nuclear physicists in the 1970s, is to eliminate the problematic, point-like graviton particles. 

String theory is a concrete framework that addresses these pressing questions and others. Point-like particles of particle physics could be modelled as one-dimensional objects known as strings. The behaviour of these strings and the nature of their interaction through space is string theory. There is only one type of string that resembles a small loop or segment of an ordinary string. Picture tying a small string between two poles and striking it. Observe its vibration; through this, you can notice that the string doesn’t vibrate in a particular manner. This is exactly how the string particles interact in the universe. 

All elementary particles are viewed as vibrating strings. Over large distances, the mass, charge and other properties of the string determine the vibrational state of the string. One of the vibrational states of the string gives rise to a quantum mechanical particle graviton; it carries the gravitational force. Therefore, string theory nothing but the theory of quantum gravity. 

How Does Modern String Theory Connect Mathematical Dots?

As science advanced and new discoveries came to light, the String theory was also the subject of modification. The modern string theory was reformulated in 1988 by John Schwarz, an American theoretical physicist, and Andre Neveu, a French physicist. The new string theory was in a league of its own as it did not have to remain consistent with special relativity and quantum theory. This modified theory was the superstring theory that stated that the world comprises three spatial dimensions and one temporal dimension. For the universe to remain finite, time had to be curved as this would require a second temporal dimension. String theorists envision that some multi-dimensional compactification of space existed at every point in space.

Duality, an abstract mathematical relationship between two situations, looks different but could be translated. Theoretical physicists used analogous dualities that bridge unrelated branches in math, such as geometry and number theory. Each operates differently, but dualities enable mathematicians to translate from one another. String theory has the potential to illuminate the dark web by linking different areas of math; this is still up for debate among scientists. Leading scientists believe that string theory still continues to evolve and remains a very productive field of research with the potential to solve long-standing mathematical equations.

Conclusion

Several scientists still debate the string theory’s future, as it has failed to live up to its promise of uniting gravity and quantum mechanics. However, it has become one of the most useful sets of tools in science. If we understand the nature of dark matter and dark energy, it could give us a better perspective of the universe and maybe make string theory more relevant. This is because understanding the dark matter will open up a pandora’s box that would help scientists analyze different aspects regarding dimensions and vibrating strings. The string theory is just a theory and could also be disproved in the future due to new discoveries in cosmology, astrophysics, quantum mechanics, astronomy, or even overall science. 

Why A Ring Around Saturn?

Why a ring around Saturn? Because she’s engaged! As the second-largest planet in the solar system, Saturn is a gas giant adorned with a gorgeous icy ring that adds flair to its personality. It is made up of Hydrogen and Helium gases making up a huge ball that is home to one of the most breath-taking landscapes in our solar system. Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture and wealth, also the father of Jupiter. 

What is Saturn Made up of?

Before we understand why Saturn has a ring around it, we need to know the history of how the planet was formed. 4.5 billion years ago, Saturn was formed when other planets in the solar system took shape. Gravity pulled swirling dust and gas in to become this enormous second-largest gas giant in the solar system. At its core, there are dense metals like iron and nickel that are surrounded by rocky material and other compounds solidified by intense pressure and heat. Its core is very stable and integral as it is enveloped by a layer of liquid hydrogen similar to Jupiter’s core but considerably smaller. 

Did you know that Saturn can float on water if dropped in a planet-sized tub? Yes, that’s right, the planet’s average density is less than water due to its gas composition. Saturn does not have a true surface as it comprises swirling gas and liquids deep down. Let us take a journey into Saturn by flying a space drone into the planet’s atmosphere. As the drone flies into Saturn, it would melt and vaporize well before it hits the planet’s surface. This is due to the extreme pressure and temperature of the planet that could crush, melt, and reduce the spacecraft into smithereens. Also, the planet lacks a crust or surface as it is only a ball of swirling gases. 

The Atmospheric Composition

Let us hypothetically design a specific suit that can withstand the hostile conditions on Saturn. As you are dropped into Saturn, you will be able to observe faint stripes, get streams and storms. They will be of different shades of yellow, brown, and grey. You will be swept away by winds in the upper atmosphere that reach a speed of 1,600 feet per second. The pressure will be so immense that it would squeeze gas into a liquid form. But you will not be affected by this as the hypothetically created suit would be able to withstand this pressure. 

As you make your way to the planet’s North pole, you will be mesmerized by a six-sided jet stream. This stream that resembles a hexagon was first observed by the Voyager 1 spacecraft in 1980. This hexagon spans at 20,000 miles across, with a wavy jet stream of wind hitting you at 322 km/hr with a massive rotating storm at the center. Saturn’s smaller magnetic field is smaller than Jupiter’s but 578 times more powerful than Earth’s. It has an enormous magnetosphere that covers the rings and many of the satellites. The magnetosphere behaves like electrically charged particles and is influenced by Saturn’s magnetic field than the solar wind.

How Did the Ring Form?

When Saturn was formed, it is believed that pieces of asteroids and comets of shattered moons broke up before they reached the planet, thanks to its strong gravity. Since these asteroids were very far away from the Sun, they were coated with ice due to the extreme cold. The planet’s ring comprises dust-sized icy grains to large chunks as big as a house or even a mountain. These rings would look white from the surface, with each ring orbiting around the planet at a different speed. 

Saturn’s ring extends up to 175,000 miles from the planet, but the vertical height is 30 feet in main rings. The ring was named in the order they were discovered alphabetically, with the main ones being A, B, and C. Fainter and more recently discovered rings were D, E, F, and G. The rings D, C, and B are close to the inner atmosphere of the planet and rings A, F, G, and E were farther out. Also, there is a faint ring in the orbit of Saturn’s moon Pheobe. 

Saturn’s rings are truly an amazing sight to behold. You can visit a nearby observatory to check out that marvelous sight on the right day. Just make sure to search on the internet and find the day when Saturn will be visible in the right sky and drive to the observatory. 

Meet The Man Who Gave A New Definition To Quantum Physics, Richard Feynman

Passion is the driving force of successful physicists and engineers in this world. It pushes people to explore their inner potential and achieve unimaginable heights in their respective fields through revolutionary breakthroughs. Richard Phillips Feynman was one of the greatest minds the world has ever seen. He was an American theoretical physicist who revolutionized physics through his contributions to quantum electrodynamics, integral formulation of quantum mechanics, and particle physics. His contributions in the field of astrophysics are like the building blocks of scientists to emulate. Come, let us dive into the life of this genius to understand his journey and valuable contributions to this world.

A Natural Born Genius

Richard Feynman was born on 11th May 1918 in New York City, USA, to a humble family that migrated from Minsk in Belarus. He was a late talker as he did not speak until his third birthday but later developed a thick New York accent. He was quite close to his younger sister Joan, who shared the curiosity of the world, just like him. He encouraged Joan to pursue her interests in physics, and this led to her choosing a career in astrophysics. Richard’s father was a salesman brought up in a Jewish family. However, despite his religious upbringing, he always encouraged Richard to ask questions to challenge orthodox thinking and religious beliefs. Richard got his sense of humour from his mother, a fun-loving and caring homemaker known for her prominent funny bone. 

Ever since he was a child, Richard had a strong liking towards the way things work and was always in the pursuit of knowledge. As a pre-teen, he maintained an experimental laboratory at home and spent a lot of time repairing radios. In high school, he excelled beyond bounds in physics and would always analyze issues theoretically and arrive at the solution. In high school, he was promoted to a higher math class thanks to his proficiency in solving math equations being way higher than his peers. He was such a gem of a genius that he taught himself trigonometry, advanced algebra, integral calculus, and analytical geometry. He also won the New York University math championship during his last year in high school. 

An Impressive Student

Feynman joined the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity when he attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Although he majored in math, he switched to electrical engineering and later on changed to physics, which he thought was more accurate for him. He published forces in molecules in his graduate years, which is now known as the Hellman-Feynman therom. In 1942, he received a PhD from Princeton with his thesis being the principle of least action in quantum mechanics. 

Feynman analyzed problems in quantum mechanics and applied the principle of stationary action, which paved a platform for the path integral formulation and Feynman diagrams. His supervisor was astonished by his thesis and exclaimed that no physicist on earth could match Feynman’s command over native materials of theoretical science. Feynman had stellar intellect as he was able to decipher the substance behind equations like a walk in the park. He exhibited an enormous amount of dedication and intelligence, just like how Einstein was at his age.

Assisted in Creating the Atom Bomb 

In 1941, he got married to his first wife Arline Greenbaum, who passed away due to tuberculosis in 1945. With world war two raging on and the rising tensions between Japan and the United States after the pearl harbour attack, Feynman was recruited by the government to produce enriched uranium for the atomic bomb in the Manhattan Project. He played a major role in this project and developed a formula with leading scientists to create the fission bomb. After a lot of experiments and trials using a miniature nuclear reactor, his team was able to build the weapon of mass destruction. He was able to provide value addition to the team thanks to his prior experience in working with ballistics problems at Frankford Arsenal in Pennsylvania.

Quantom electrodynamics is the study of how light interacts with matter and how charged particles interact with each other. Feynman was known for his contributions in this field. At Cornell University, Feynman worked on a formulation on electrodynamics which was approved by Freeman Dyson, renowned astrophysics at his prime. He proposed a paper on the theory of positrons, which addressed various equations. He also published papers on the mathematical formulation of applications in quantum electrodynamics in 1951, which paved the way for students at the university to aid in the research. 

Contributions to Physics and Engineering

At high school, we all would have studied the superfluity of supercooled liquid helium. If you are lucky enough, your school would have also had experiments on exhibiting this quality of helium, where it showcases a lack of viscosity while flowing. Well, guess what? This concept was discovered by Feynman during his investigation at the California Institute of Technology. He proved this through the quantum mechanical explanation of a Russian physicist’s theory of superfluidity. 

Feynman was not just the jack of all trades; he was also the master of all. He proved this through his work on the forces like the strong, weak, electromagnetic, and gravity; he established the investigations of all four interactions. This resulted in his success in quantum electrodynamics and quantum gravity. He was a force to be reckoned with in the field of physics as he established a new idea that aided computer engineers. He knew that there was a relationship between physics and computation; he was one of the first scientists to discover the possibility of quantum computers. 

Feynman was a person who loved to explore and never had anything called a comfort zone. He was always on the lookout to learn new things, experiment on different aspects, and learn through questioning and reasoning. In 1980, he began working at Thinking Machines Corporation and helped in building parallel supercomputers. He also considered the idea of constructing quantum computers. He proposed the variational perturbation theory that helped in measuring satellite experiments. 

A Dedicated Teacher

Feynman was known for his revolutionary teaching methods, which were unorthodox in nature. He often said that students should be made to think in the most open-minded manner like scientists, and teachers have to constantly kindle their creativity and address their doubts with patience. In his lectures, he would give a holistic view of science in the simplest manner that is easily understandable by even a child. He would emphasize the evolution of life and the nature of knowledge transfer of science to the next generation, which is essential as it would enable humans to achieve things in the realm of science fiction. 

Feynman often taught concepts in a very engaging manner. Scientists and students who attended his lectures would say that when he teaches a concept, he explains it in a very personal manner that it feels like he is sharing his life experience. He encouraged students and young scientists to constantly question how everything works and, most importantly, what makes everything work. His lecturers were so engaging that people were glued to their seats like toddlers listening to a wonderful tale of the universe and the romantic interaction between subatomic particles.

Nobel Prize-Winning Physicist 

Feynman’s achievements in his lifetime are the equivalent of 10 highly intelligent scientists. His dedication and passion for science was immeasurable, and his contributions in astrophysics and particle physics were unachievable by even renowned scientists. He received the Albert Einstein Award and a gold medal for his contribution to physics in 1954. In 1962, he received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award, followed by the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. He shared the Nobel prize with two other scientists Schwinger, and Tomonaga, for their contributions in quantum electrodynamics and deep ploughing consequences of elementary particle research. He was also elected as a member of the national academy of sciences but resigned after a few years. 

In 1978, tragedy struck Feynman when he faced abdominal pain, which was diagnosed with a rare form of cancer. After multiple surgeries to remove the tumour that was the size of a football, his kidney failed due to duodenal ulcer in 1988. He refused to undergo haemodialysis, which could have prolonged his life for a few months. He passed away on 15th February 1988 at 69. His last words being “I hate to die twice. It’s so boring.”

Conclusion

Richard Feynman was truly one of the most remarkable physicists that the world could ever ask for. A Nobel Prize-winning astrophysics who found his work in the minds of several scientists today, he was one of the most magnificent personalities in science. His sense of humour and elegant personality helped him to hit the jackpot with the ladies. He may have passed away, but his work and ideas continue to tingle the minds of young scientists, students, and science lovers. He has proved that passion and curiosity are what drives people to achieve great heights. 

Delving into Dark Energy and Dark Matter

For the last six decades, scientists at NASA, the Russian Space Agency, and other renowned space research organizations around the world have expanded the knowledge of our universe by a monstrous margin. They have launched a full fleet of telescopes and satellites that have explored various galaxies, planets, and the farthest corners of the universe. As a result, what we considered as fiction 100 years ago is now a reality due to the discovery of new elements and the study of the evolution of the universe from the big bang to the present. 

Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, the Spacecraft that Gave Our Universe its DOB

The cosmic microwave background is a record of the earliest version of the big bang. The dark ages are where the first stars and galaxies were formed. We must be ever grateful to the Wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe, which made this measurement and gave a coherent picture of the universe we see today. This probe was enabled astronomers and astrophysics to precisely date the age of the universe, which is 13.77 billion years old. Scientists were also able to understand that atoms only made 4.6% of the universe, with the remaining being dark matter and dark energy. The universe consists of regular matter, dark matter, and dark energy. Regular matter constitutes just 5%, consisting of atoms that make up stars, planets, humans, and every other visible object in the universe.

Galaxies, solar systems, and planets are held together by gravity, the universal binder; however, something doesn’t quite add up as galaxies are achieving something that defies gravity. Galaxies are rotating at such speed that the gravity generated by the observable matter doesn’t hold them together as they should have been torn apart long ago causing a cosmic catastrophe. This leads scientists to believe that something that is not observable is in play.

27% of the Universe is Dark Matter

We look up in the universe and see the effects of gravity, how it binds stars, planets, and galaxies together. Now, picture a simulation that lets you re-create the events in the history of the universe. Let’s add up all the comets, black holes, asteroids, stars, and everything we know about to account for the gravity we see. Now add dark matter, the extra gravity, Eureka, the universe becomes what we see. That’s why we know that dark matter is real; we don’t know what it is, but we know that it’s there because we cannot make the universe we see today unless the dark matter is added into the simulation as it perfectly matches with the gravity. 

Particle physicists are convinced that there is an exotic particle that doesn’t interact with light, telescopes, or any other equipment but has gravity. These particles are invisible to us but are attracting matter into them and interacting with other elements in a unique and accelerated way. These exotic particles are known as dark matter, which forms the bulk of a galaxy’s mass and the foundation of the universe’s large-scale structure. The nature of dark matter is that it doesn’t emit, absorb, or reflect light, thereby making its presence invisible to the universe. However, its presence is known due to its gravitational pull on the visible matter in space. 

Scientists theorize that dark matter could not be matter at all but the gravity from ordinary matter from a nearby other universe or multiverse whose gravitational influence we feel. Mind-blowing, isn’t it? However, there is no hard data of this, but there are theoretical, philosophical reasons to think that a multiverse exists. The first observation of the existence of dark matter was by the Chandra X-ray Telescope in 2007 when it observed the bullet cluster of galaxies. 

68% of the Universe is Dark Energy

The Hubble Space Telescope observed very distant supernovae showed scientists that there was a time where the universe was expanding at a much slower rate than today. However, the expanding universe has not been slowing down but has accelerated by a significant margin. No scientist could rationally or theoretically explain this phenomenon, but they knew that something was causing this expansion. Scientists discovered a mysterious pressure in the vacuum of space acting opposite to the force of gravity. This pressure was coined as dark energy, a placeholder term to describe what was observed. No known force could stop or slow down the expansion of the universe.

In fact, in theory, space cannot accommodate or allow this rapid expansion of the universe as it might tear in an unimaginable way. Leading scientists and astrophysics are still baffled at this fact as they cannot explain the nature of dark energy. This energy is needed to measure the geometry of space with the total matter in the universe. 

A Breakthrough that Could Re-define Our Understanding of the Universe

The universe is far from being fully understood, and there are numerous theories as to what dark matter and dark energy actually are. Scientists have been racking their brains about what these entities are. In recent times, new methods could detect these energies, thereby leading to a breakthrough in our understanding of the universe. In astrophysics, there is always a capacity to measure something, even if it is unknown to us. For instance, you could measure something falling to the ground by assessing its velocity but not know what the particle is. Likewise, we can measure the sun moving across the sky and build calendars based on that and not know that the Earth revolves around the Sun (This is what our early ancestors did). 

Rebecca K Leane is an astroparticle physicist at the SLAC national accelerator laboratory at Stanford University. She believes that Jupiter is an ideal candidate to detect dark matter. It has a large surface area that enables it to capture more incoming particles than any other planet in the solar system. 

Exoplanets can also be used to detect dark matter as it does not involve the use of new instruments. When the gravity of exoplanets captures dark matter, it travels to the planetary core to release its energy as heat. The more the dark matter is captured, the more it should heat up the atmosphere. This heat could be captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, an infrared telescope that is scheduled to launch in November 2021. This telescope is planned to succeed the Hubble and give rise to much larger discoveries that could re-shape the understanding of our universe.

Conclusion

With the launch of the James Webb telescope, scientists could observe various statists of galaxy evolution and compare these observations and analyze theories of the role that dark matter played in that process. In 2025, NASA is planning to launch the Nancy Grace Roman Space telescope designed to unravel the secrets of dark matter and dark energy. It would enable scientists to image exoplanets, explore topics in infrared astrophysics. If this project is successful, it could pave the way to several groundbreaking scientific discoveries that could change the understanding of our existence in the universe!